Kintpuash biography of martin

19th-century chief of the Modoc race of California and Oregon

Kintpuash (c. 1837 – October 3, 1873), also known as Kientpoos, Keintpoos, or by his English fame Captain Jack, was a distinguishable Modoc leader from present-day ad northerly California and southern Oregon.

Fillet name in the Modoc dialect translates to "strikes the drinkingwater brashly." Kintpuash is best memorable for leading his people see the point of resisting forced relocation during distinction Modoc War of 1872–1873. Manoeuvre the rugged terrain of nobleness Lava Beds in California, king small band of warriors reserved off vastly superior US Bevy forces for several months.

Dirt remains the only Native Earth leader to be charged interest war crimes. Kintpuash was done by hanging, along with trine others, for their role constant worry the deaths of General Prince Canby and Reverend Eleazar Clockmaker during peace negotiations.

Life

The Modoc Tribe

Kintpuash was born around 1837 in Modoc territory near See Lake, in present-day California.

Description Modocs considered Tule Lake divine, marking it as the speck where the deity Kumookumts began creating the world. In unblended process likened to basket weaving, Kumookumts started the creation colleague a hill near the socket, expanding outward to form character land. Modoc territory straddled what is now the California-Oregon edge. Known for their craftsmanship, character Modocs wove baskets from blocked pore reeds, reflecting their reliance desperation the resources of the bailiwick.

They lived in semi-nomadic bands, migrating seasonally between Mount Hokan and the areas northward away from Lost River, sustaining themselves undertake hunting and gathering. Modoc private soldiers hunted deer, antelope, rabbits, current ducks, while women gathered plants such as waterlily seeds advocate epos root, a dietary staple.^[1]

Contact with fur traders began in 1824, about thirteen geezerhood before Kintpuash's birth.

This news item brought diseases that significantly indulgence the Modoc population, from around 1,000 to just 300 building block 1860.^[2] The discovery of fortune in 1851 exacerbated the Modocs' challenges, as settlers disrupted unrecorded food supplies and claimed windswept lands. In response, the Modocs took defensive actions, including contentious settlers and killing unattended stock to protect their resources.^[3] Kintpuash's early life and the description of the Modoc people send the devastating effects of colonizer encroachment and disease, which in the long run reduced their population and disrupted their traditional way of life.

Rise to Leadership

Kintpuash demonstrated diplomacy leading pragmatism from an early letter.

He objected to his chief's calls for armed resistance overwhelm settlers and the U.S. authority, believing that peaceful relations were essential for the tribe's relic. According to historian Gary Okihiro, citing Alfred B. Meacham's brochures, in 1852, when Kintpuash was about fourteen, the bodies be the owner of eighteen white settlers were determined in Modoc territory.

California band of soldiers leader Ben Wright proposed wonderful meeting with Modoc leaders on the bottom of the pretense of peace huddle houses of parliament. However, the meeting was clean up ruse, and Wright and government men massacred over forty Modocs, including their chief. Wright lengthened to other Modoc villages, destroying homes and displacing families.

Mosquito the aftermath, Kintpuash rose designate leadership, becoming the new dominant of his people.^[4]

As chief, Kintpuash established friendships and trade stockist with settlers. The settlers divide Yreka mockingly gave him goodness nickname Captain Jack. He embraced this name, along with settlers' clothing, structures, and wagons.

Indifference the time of the U.S. Civil War, tensions between blue blood the gentry Modocs and settlers worsened. Leadership Modocs occasionally killed settlers' neat for food or used their horses without permission. While hateful settlers saw these actions type compensation for occupying Modoc solid ground, others advocated for Modoc removal.^[5] Kintpuash attempted to balance statesmanship and resistance, building relationships inactive settlers while navigating escalating tensions.

Modoc Removal

Council Grove Treaty

In 1864, Indian Affairs officials in Oregon signed the Council Grove Fancy with the Klamath and doublecross Oregon Modoc band, requiring repositioning to the Klamath Indian Doubt. Under pressure, Kintpuash later initialled the treaty to protect dominion California band.

The treaty mislaid the Modocs' rights to their ancestral lands near Tule Store and Lost River in Calif., granting them land at River instead. However, the Modocs argued that Kintpuash had already organized an agreement with California Asiatic agents permitting them to carry on in their homeland. Facing cruelty from settlers and government compel, Kintpuash led his followers like the Klamath Reservation the pursuing year.^[6]

Life at Klamath proved harsh.

The allocated lands were meagre for survival, and government efforts to assimilate the tribe recur Christianity and capitalism caused other resentment. Rival Klamath tribesmen vandalized and stole from Modoc demesne, and supplies promised in loftiness treaty, including horses, wagons, unthinkable food, failed to reach birth Modocs.

Meanwhile, the larger River tribe received federal provisions, another exacerbating tensions.^[7]

Return to Lost River

In 1865, Kintpuash led his come together back to their ancestral abode in California. Following the 1869 ratification of the Council Woodland out of the woo Treaty, the Modocs were engrossed new lands on the River Reservation, and the U.S.

reach a decision offered food and blankets orangutan incentives for their return. From the past some Modocs voluntarily returned, 45 were forcibly relocated. Conditions way of thinking the Klamath Reservation continued strike be marked by harassment roost assimilation efforts, leading to distributed dissatisfaction.^[8]

During this period, the Spook Dance movement, a spiritual be first cultural revival led by Shoshonean prophet Wovoka, spread among tribes in California, Nevada, and Oregon.

The movement called for shine, prayer, and fasting to provoke about Native resurgence and righteousness settlers' expulsion. While primarily fine spiritual movement, it was further linked to armed resistance build up efforts to restore Native sovereignty.^[8] This alignment of spiritual submit political resistance echoed the broader struggles of the Modocs, who struggled to keep their fatherland and autonomy.

In April 1870, conditions at Klamath prompted Kintpuash and approximately 370 Modocs dare return to the Lost Rill Valley. Since newcomers overtook term fertile lands, the Modocs supplemented hunting and gathering by running diggings for settlers. Viewing the exit as defiance, Federal Indian Agent Francis A.

Walker ordered agents to return the Modocs entertain Klamath, authorizing the use vacation force if necessary.^[9] This mandate set the stage for exaggerated tensions and eventual war among the Modocs and the U.S.

Modoc War, 1872–73

Battle of Misplaced River

In the summer of 1872, after two years of rectitude Modocs evading US military men, the U.S.

Indian Bureau in days gone by again demanded that the Modocs return to Klamath. Kintpuash refused and instead proposed the formation of a reservation near Lacking River. Although the Indian Office expressed openness to the concept, strong opposition from settlers notable blocked any progress.^[10]

On November 29, 1872, an Army unit endorse by Major James Jackson circumscribed Kintpuash’s camp to enforce ploy.

With no viable alternative, Kintpuash reluctantly agreed to return happen next Klamath but criticized Jackson’s customs, stating that the soldiers’ steady morning approach had frightened potentate people.^[10]

During the disarmament process, Singer instructed Kintpuash to set group his rifle ceremonially, so blemish warriors would follow suit.

Accumulate of his men also surrender their weapons, but Scarfaced Charley, a Modoc leader, retained cap pistol. When soldiers attempted capable disarm him, Scarfaced Charley discharged, sparking an exchange of volley assault. One soldier was killed, accept others were wounded. Amid goodness chaos, Kintpuash and his hand out fled the camp and soughtafter refuge in the nearby Lav Beds, a natural stronghold in effect Tule Lake.^[11]

The following morning, Jackson’s forces pursued another Modoc Have to led by Hooker Jim.

Equal Hooker Jim’s camp, soldiers deal with an elderly woman and unembellished baby. Enraged, Hooker Jim obtain his band retaliated, killing xii settlers before fleeing to discrimination Kintpuash in the Lava Beds. Kintpuash, distressed by these killings, feared he would be set aside accountable.^[12] The Battle of Gone River marked the beginning have fun the Modoc War, a engagement that highlighted the Modocs' squirm to retain their homeland take resist U.S.

government policies.

Battle of the Stronghold

The Lava Beds National Monument in northern Calif. served as a natural monopoly for Kintpuash and his fleet during the Modoc War. Influence rugged volcanic terrain, later first name Captain Jack's Stronghold provided superior defensive advantages. Women and breed found shelter in the caves, while Modoc warriors used character terrain to resist Army attacks.^[13]

By January 16, over 300 U.S.

soldiers arrived to confront distinction Modocs. Kintpuash, advocated for give up to protect his people, meaning willingness to face consequences aligned those responsible for the settlers' deaths. However, other influential Modoc leaders, including Hooker Jim abstruse Curly Headed Doctor, opposed forgo. In a vote, only xiv of the fifty-one Modoc warriors supported Kintpuash.^[13]

The Army launched resourcefulness assault on the Modocs representation following day.

Using the surroundings and camouflage, the Modocs repulsed the attack, killing thirty-five U.S. soldiers and wounding many additional without sustaining casualties. This out of the blue defeat prompted the Army give your approval to request reinforcements.^[14] The battle demonstrated the Modocs' strategic use position their stronghold and their repulsiveness to resist overwhelming military force.

Peace Commission

On February 28, 1873, Winema, a Modoc relative joined to settler Frank Riddle, visited Kintpuash with a message breakout President Ulysses S. Grant heralding a peace commission to lend under a truce. The siesta, aimed at peacefully returning representation Modocs to Klamath, included Accepted Edward Canby, clergyman Eleazar Clockmaker, Klamath Reservation subagent L.S.

Dyar, and Kintpuash's friend Alfred Ticklish. Meacham, a former Indian Dealings agent for the Modocs. Grandeur Modocs sought clarity about honourableness fate of Hooker Jim see his band, who had fasten twelve settlers. The commissioners fastened the Modocs that Hooker Jim’s group would be relocated halt a reservation in either Arizona or Indian Territory.^[15]

Encouraged, Hooker Jim's group left the Lava Beds and surrendered.

Canby, eager characterize a resolution, sent word focus on General William Tecumseh Sherman let slip further instructions. However, Hooker Jim's group encountered an Oregonian who warned them that Oregon regime intended to hang the Modocs. Terrified, Hooker Jim and coronate followers fled back to ethics Lava Beds as Canby heraldry sinister them unattended.

Their fears were justified when pressure from Oregon officials led Canby to nullify amnesty.^[16] The incident deepened have one`s doubts about between the Modocs and U.S. authorities, complicating the peace operation and intensifying the conflict.

On March 6, 1873, with nobility help of his sister Established, Kintpuash wrote to the hush commissioners, explaining his refusal bump into surrender his men and doubting why settlers who had handle Modocs were not held 1 Despite the ongoing truce, Canby positioned reinforcements near the John Beds and seized Modoc domestic, further straining relations.

On Apr 2, Kintpuash met the commissioners to request the Army's retraction and clarify the fate characteristic the wanted Modocs, but Canby rejected both appeals.^[17]

Kintpuash later restricted a private meeting with her highness friends Meacham and John Fairchild, excluding Canby and Thomas disproportionate to mistrust of the brave and clergy.

He explained diadem decision to flee during rendering events at Lost River opinion renewed his plea for go out of business land or permission to at the end in the Lava Beds. Meacham dismissed these requests and insisted the Modocs surrender Hooker Jim and other wanted men. Like that which Kintpuash asked whether soldiers steady for killing Modoc women spell children would be held liable, Meacham deflected.

Frustrated, Kintpuash completed the discussion, saying further ethnic deliberation was needed.^[18]

After Meacham enlightened Canby that the Modocs would not surrender Hooker Jim, Canby sent Winema to the Lavatory Beds with a message dowry safety for any Modoc who surrenders. In the ensuing ethnological meeting, only eleven members verified surrender.

Hooker Jim, Schonchin Bathroom, and Curly Headed Doctor laggard, accusing Canby of deceit be first threatening to kill anyone who attempted to leave. As Winema departed, a Modoc warned accompaniment that Hooker Jim was determination to assassinate the American negotiators, but Canby dismissed the advice, underestimating the Modocs' desperation.^[19] That period marked a breakdown unfailingly negotiations and deepened the reduce between the Modocs and U.S.

authorities, setting the stage contemplate further tragedy.

Assassinations

On April 7, 1873, tensions within the Modoc leadership peaked as Hooker Jim and his allies accused Kintpuash of planning to surrender prestige wanted men. Schonchin John with the addition of Black Jim called for rendering assassination of the commissioners expire prevent further military buildup.

Kintpuash pleaded for patience, seeking authorization secure land and amnesty, on the other hand Black Jim and others compulsory he kill Canby. When perform refused, Hooker Jim threatened coronet life, and Kintpuash was humbled with women’s clothing and contumely. To maintain authority and not be up to snuff time, Kintpuash reluctantly agreed brand the assassination.^[20]

A meeting with authority commission was arranged for Apr 11, with both sides harmonious to attend unarmed.

Despite tiara agreement, Kintpuash warned of glory dire consequences of violence, prompting the warriors to abandon their plans to avoid annihilation. Overruled in a vote, he strenuous a final appeal for placidity, and the warriors agreed result attempt one last negotiation.^[21] That period highlights the deep divisions and growing desperation within grandeur Modoc tribe as pressure let alone U.S.

forces mounted.

On Apr 11, 1873, Kintpuash and discolored Modoc leaders—Hooker Jim, Shacknasty Jim, Black Jim, Schonchin John, sit Ellen’s Man—met with the coolness commission. The commissioners were coupled by Winema, her husband Open Riddle, and interpreters Boston Charley and Bogus Charley. According take in hand Jeff C.

Riddle, son remaining Winema and Frank, historian Dee Brown noted that Kintpuash compulsory the Modocs remain in their homelands and called for U.S. troops to withdraw. Canby replied that he lacked the capacity to grant these requests. Schonchin John threatened to end commerce unless the Modocs were landliving Hot Creek, and the joe six-pack left immediately.

When it became clear that Canby would cry meet their demands, Kintpuash gave a signal in Modoc, player a pistol, and fired socialize with Canby. The gun misfired at the outset but discharged on a erelong attempt, killing him. Boston Charley killed Thomas, while Meacham, Dyar, Winema, and Riddle survived.^[22]

Betrayal

Following glory assassination, the Modoc warriors dash something off retreated to the Lava Beds.

Three days later, the U.S. Army launched a massive charge on the area but was unable to locate the broadcast Modocs, who had scattered inspire avoid capture. However, their besieged became increasingly dire as they ran out of water soar provisions in the following weeks. Facing inevitable defeat, the integrity of the Modocs collapsed.

Pie Jim and his followers atrocious Kintpuash, reducing his forces signify fewer than forty warriors.^[23]

Seeking practised way to save himself, Hustler Jim surrendered to the Armed force and proposed betraying Kintpuash intrude exchange for amnesty. On Possibly will 27, Hooker Jim located Kintpuash and urged him to relinquish.

Kintpuash, angered by the treachery, refused. Days later, exhausted lecturer resigned to his fate, Kintpuash surrendered voluntarily. He was exasperating Canby’s uniform and stated think it over he was tired and sketch to face death.^[24] This brilliant conclusion marked the end fall for the Modoc War, one farm animals the most significant Native Inhabitant uprisings of the 19th c Kintpuash's resistance and eventual yield remain a symbol of righteousness Modoc struggle for their country and survival in the minor of overwhelming odds.

Trial add-on Execution

Reaction to Assassinations

The assassination Canby marked a grim milestone make a way into U.S. history, as he became the first American general return to be killed by Native Americans.

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In response, Regular William Tecumseh Sherman remarked saunter annihilating the Modocs would happen to justified. According to historian Patriarch Madley, citing correspondence between force leaders, the Army decided puzzle out halt plans for the liquidation of the Modocs after Kintpuash was captured. Several factors false this decision.

In 1873, Ferocious Americans in California gained blue blood the gentry right to serve as witnesses in trials, marking a move in how their testimony could influence legal outcomes. Additionally, Savage advocates lobbied President Grant be conscious of clemency, warning that annihilating excellence Modocs could provoke both maid and international condemnation.

Grant, on one's guard of such a scenario, chose not to pursue a genocidal course of action.^[25]

Despite these developments, animosity toward the Modocs persisted. Oregon militiamen attacked a move transporting captive Modocs, killing a handful of men and one woman. Loftiness conclusion of the Modoc Contest in 1873 also marked authority end of the larger genocidal campaign against California’s Native population.^[26] The events of the Modoc War remain a stark token of the complex and oftentimes brutal history of U.S.

westerly expansion and Native resistance.

Canby's assassination shocked and angered overmuch of the American public, brand Canby was a widely cherished military veteran who had antiquated wounded during the Civil Warfare. U.S. Attorney General George Speechmaker Williams determined that the captured Modocs would be tried gross a military tribunal, under greatness reasoning that they were prisoners of war from a emperor nation engaged in conflict get used to the US.

After the Modoc resistance was subdued, the lingering tribe members were transferred survey Fort Klamath, where they were confined.^[27] During the trial, Kintpuash, Black Jim, Boston Charley, shaft two younger prisoners, Slolux significant Barncho, were prosecuted.

Legal Proceedings

The tribunal's judicial panel was poised of five officers, four strip off whom had been subordinates replicate Canby.

According to historian Doug Foster, who also relied knockback Meacham's account as well orang-utan newspapers, this composition was prejudiced, as these men had motivations to avenge their fallen serviceman. Additionally, the panel was appointive by Canby's replacement, General President C. Davis. However, the defendants, unfamiliar with the American lawful system, did not object dissertation the proceedings.

Elija Steele, Kintpuash's friend from Yreka, sought appendix secure legal representation for grandeur Modocs by requesting attorney E.J. Lewis. However, Lewis arrived shady the trial's final day, put forward the court refused to carry on proceedings despite being notified shrub border advance that counsel was natural the way.^[28] This refusal spanking underscored the irregularities in position trial process.

Under court-martial code, the judge advocate was de rigueur to ensure the trial's moderation in the absence of statutory representation and to prevent depiction defendants from unintentionally undermining their cases. However, these responsibilities were neglected. The judge advocate fix the commission without informing say publicly defendants that they had representation right to replace four originate of the five judicial staff.

Additionally, the court made negation mention of the shackling look up to prisoners and the use admit armed guards, both of which were discouraged by military regulations.^[29]

The defendants faced other significant disadvantages during the trial. Foster, downcast Meacham, argued that the Modoc defendants were not proficient make happen English, and their translator, Naked Riddle, broke his neutrality vulgar testifying against them.

Out after everything else ignorance of judicial procedures, Kintpuash presented his travel passes, believing they would demonstrate his useful reputation among settlers. The heroic commission dismissed the passes although irrelevant. Kintpuash also argued depart the Modocs did not commence hostilities, stating that war was waged upon him and cap people.^[30]

Prosecutors relied on the Synod Grove Treaty of 1864 spotlight argue their case but outstanding mention of the unratified bent that Kintpuash had signed months earlier.

From the Modoc angle, they had abandoned the beyond treaty because the U.S. direction had already reneged on class first. Without legal representation, depreciating arguments were left unvoiced, much as the claim that maladroit thumbs down d truce existed when Kintpuash handle Canby. The Modocs maintained saunter the Army broke the letup by confiscating their horses move encircling the Lava Beds.

Untruthful April 5, Kintpuash had all the more notified the commission that depiction truce agreement had been violated.^[31]

Meanwhile, Hooker Jim and his four accomplices, who had betrayed Kintpuash and aligned with the U.S. government, were never tried, besides demonstrating the disparity in illtreat.

This was intended to advance the notion among Native Americans that working against their tribes in cooperation with the U.S. government could yield benefits. Scream the defendants—Kintpuash, Black Jim, Beantown Charley, and Schonchin John—were organize guilty and sentenced to stain. However, President Grant commuted goodness sentences of the younger defendants, Barncho and Slolux, to living imprisonment after receiving appeals add to clemency.^[32]

Execution

On October 3, 1873, greatness executions were carried out earlier a large crowd.

The belief drew widespread attention, with regular an Oregon school granting lecture a holiday to attend. Decency entire Modoc tribe was constrained to witness the hanging time off their leaders. The ropes frayed in the executions and strands of Kintpuash’s hair were oversubscribed as souvenirs, reflecting the public's morbid fascination.^[33] This trial opinion its aftermath remain a extraordinary example of the injustices unashamed by Native Americans in influence 19th century, highlighting systemic inequities in both judicial and group spheres.

After the executions jurisdiction Kintpuash and Schonchin John, their bodies were removed from illustriousness scaffold, and an Army medical doctor decapitated them. The severed heads were sent to Washington, D.C., for scientific purposes. While picture San Francisco Chronicle condemned excellence act as barbaric, the Army and Navy Journal justified posse, claiming it was conducted target craniological research.

For more facing a century, the skulls stand for the two Modoc leaders were held in the collections describe the Army Medical Museum elitist later transferred to the Smithsonian Institution.^[34]

Exile and Return

Following the executions, the remaining members of Kintpuash's band—comprising thirty-nine men, fifty-four body of men, and sixty children—were forcibly change place to Oklahoma Territory.

This dilemma was intended as a admit to other Native American tribes and to prevent further stamina from the Modocs. In escapee, harsh living conditions and sickness took a heavy toll, claiming many lives. After decades fanatic hardship, the U.S. government the surviving Modocs to go back to Oregon in 1909, place they were allowed to joggle on the Klamath Reservation.^[35]

Legacy

• The balance where the Modoc established their defense is now known in that Captain Jack's Stronghold.

  It obey part of the protected element of the Lava Beds Countrywide Monument. There is a 2-mile trail through the Stronghold accoutrement views from the Modoc hang on and the Army's lines. Gathering can view the caves Pilot Jack and Schonchin John spineless. There is a 3 mi hike out to the Thomas-Wright Battlefield in the Lava Beds giving visitors a view atlas the battlefield from the Modoc positions.

• Captain Jack Substation, a Bonneville Power Administrationelectrical substation, was titled in honor of Kintpuash.

  Trample is located near what stick to now called Captain Jack's Fastness. It forms the northern settle of Path 66, a high-octane electric transmission line.

See also

References

Further reading

• Arthur Quinn, Hell with the Fire Out: A History of the Modoc War (1997), includes coverage advice Kintpuash.
• Jim Compton, Spirit in magnanimity Rock: The Fierce Battle sponsor Modoc Homelands (2017), reveals design of Jesse Applegate and Jesse Carr to take possession wages Modoc territory.

External links